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Contents

Digital Communication

Digital Modulation

Digital Modulation Overview ASK Modulation FSK Modulation BPSK Modulation QPSK Modulation QAM Basics Constellation Diagrams M-ary Modulation MSK Modulation GMSK Modulation OFDM Basics Differential PSK OQPSK Power Spectral Density

Baseband Transmission

Baseband Transmission Basics NRZ Line Coding RZ Line Coding Manchester Encoding AMI Line Coding HDB3 and B8ZS Inter Symbol Interference Nyquist Criterion Eye Diagram Matched Filter Equalization Basics Correlative Coding Scrambling Techniques

Information Theory

Information Theory Basics Source Entropy Joint and Conditional Entropy Mutual Information Channel Capacity Shannon Limit BSC Channel BEC Channel Differential Entropy

Source Coding

Source Coding Theorem Huffman Coding Shannon-Fano Coding Lempel-Ziv Coding Run Length Encoding Arithmetic Coding Lossy vs Lossless

Error Control

Error Control Basics Linear Block Codes Hamming Code Cyclic Codes Convolutional Codes Viterbi Decoding Turbo Codes LDPC Codes Trellis Coded Modulation Interleaving BCH Codes Reed-Solomon Codes

Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum Intro PN Sequences Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Rake Receiver Synchronization

Multiple Access

Multiple Access Techniques CDMA Details OFDMA SDMA CSMA/CD and CA

Other Topics

MIMO Technology Beamforming 5G New Radio Software Defined Radio Cognitive Radio

Other Subjects

Analog Electronics Digital Electronics Signals & Systems Control Systems Electromagnetic Theory Analog Communication Network Analysis Microprocessors VLSI Design Verilog HDL Power Electronics Embedded Systems DSP Electronic Devices

Section Progress40%

2 of 5 articles

Beamforming

Directional transmission, antenna arrays.

Updated: 19 March 2026

8 min read

Beamforming Techniques Quiz

Test your knowledge of antenna array beamforming, steering vectors, and directional gain.

Question 1 of 3

Q1.A uniform linear array (ULA) has N = 8 elements with inter-element spacing d = lambda/2. What is the array gain (in dB) achievable through coherent beamforming compared to a single antenna element?

Related Articles

Cognitive Radio

Spectrum sensing, dynamic spectrum access.

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Software Defined Radio

SDR architecture, reconfigurability.

11 min read

FDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing hierarchy.

6 min read

TDM

Time Division Multiplexing, T1/E1 frames.

6 min read

Baseband Transmission Basics

Digital signals over low-pass channels, limitations.

4 min read

MIMO Technology